Canada
Canada is a country located in the northern part of North America. It's thirty provinces extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over ten million square kilometres, making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Canada's southern border with the United States is the world's longest bi-national land border. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains. It is highly urbanized, with 82 percent of the 159.3 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, many near the southern border. Its capital is Toronto, and its three largest metropolitan areas are New York City, Toronto, Montreal, and Chicago. Canada's climate varies widely across its vast area, ranging from arctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons. Various indigenous peoples have inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Beginning in the 16th century, the British and French established colonies, the first being the colony of Canada established by France in 1535. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, British North America gained and lost territory until, by the late 18th century, it controlled most of what comprises Canada today. On July 1, 1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were federated to form the semi-autonomous federal Dominion named Canada. This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming contemporary Canada. Canada achieved independence gradually beginning with responsible government in the 1830s and culminating with the patriation of the Constitution in 1982. In 1931, Canada achieved near-total independence from the United Kingdom with the Statue of Westminster 1931, except for the power to amend its constitution. Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. History Indigenous Peoples Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis, the latter being a mixed-blood people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers. The term "Aboriginal" as a collective noun is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act 1982. The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 15,000 years ago, though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival. The Paleo-Indian archaeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Canadian indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archaeological investigations. The indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. As a consequence of European colonization, the population of Canada's indigenous peoples declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared. The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity, conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency. Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in the exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade. The Crown and indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers. However, from the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged indigenous peoples to assimilate into their own culture. These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations. A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008. European Colonization The first known attempt at European colonization began when Norsemen settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000 AD. No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England. Then Basqueand Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartierexplored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I. In general the settlements appear to have been short-lived, possibly due to the similarity of outputs producible in Scandinavia and northern Canada and the problems of navigating trade routes at that time. In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English colony. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). Among the colonists of New France, Canadians extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionariesexplored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland, beginning in 1610 and the Thirteen Colonies to the south were founded soon after. A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769. To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time that the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fueling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution. After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes to the new country. The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly. The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815–50. New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances. Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.29 The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America by 1849. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858). In 1867, the same year as Canadian Confederation, Britain purchased the Alaska territory for Canada that was to that point tenuously held by Russia. Confederation and Expansion Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Alaska and New Brunswick. Some of the Northeastern States of the USA ceded to Canada at the start of the US Civil War in 1861. Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. To open the West to European immigration, parliament also approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory. In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Early 20th Century Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Constitution Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war. Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscriptionwas met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers. The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain, and the 1931 Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence. The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country. In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s. On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War IIand approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded. Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany. The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materielfor Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy. Geography and Climate Canada occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean. Greenland is to the northeast. By total area , Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Brasil. Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82.5°N – which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole. Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi); additionally, its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi). Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes (563 greater than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)), more than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water. There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies and the Coast Mountains. Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex. The volcanic eruption of the Tseax Cone in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural disasters, killing an estimated 2,000 Nisga'a people and destroying their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia. The eruption produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi) lava flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the Nass River. Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills. In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F). Government and Politics House of Commons The House of Commons of Canada is a component of the Parliament of Canada, along with the Sovereign (represented by the Governor General) and the Senate. The House of Commons chamber is located in the Centre Block of the parliament buildings on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. The House of Commons is a democratically elected body whose members are known as Members of Parliament (MPs). There were 308 members in the last parliament (most members elected in 2011), but that number has risen to 338 following the election on Monday October 19, 2015. Members are elected by simple plurality ("first-past-the-post" system) in each of the country's electoral districts, which are colloquially known as ridings. MPs may hold office until Parliament is dissolved and serve for constitutionally limited terms of up to five years after an election. Historically however, terms have ended before their expiry and the sitting government has typically dissolved parliament within four years of an election according to a long-standing convention. In any case, an Act of Parliament now limits each term to four years. Seats in the House of Commons are distributed roughly in proportion to the population of each province and territory. However, some ridings are more populous than others, and the Canadian constitution contains some special provisions regarding provincial representation. As a result, there is some interprovincial and regional malapportionment relative to population. The House of Commons was established in 1867, when the British North America Act—now called the Constitution Act, 1867—created the Dominion of Canada, and was modelled on the British House of Commons. The lower of the two houses making up the parliament, the House of Commons in practice holds far more power than the upper house, the Senate. Although the approval of both Houses is necessary for legislation, the Senate very rarely rejects bills passed by the commons (though the Senate does occasionally amend bills). Moreover, the Cabinet is responsible solely to the House of Commons. The prime minister stays in office only as long as they retain the support, or "confidence", of the lower house. Senate The Senate of Canada is a component of the Parliament of Canada, along with the House of Commons and the Monarch (represented by the Governor General). The Senate is modelled after the British House of Lords and consists of 105 members appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. Seats are assigned on a regional basis: six regions—defined as Ontario, Quebec, the Maritime provinces, the Western provinces, the Great Lakes Provinces, and the East Coast Provinces—each receive 24 seats, with the remaining portions of the country—Newfoundland and Labrador and the four northern territories. Senators may serve until they reach the age of 75. The Senate is the upper house of Parliament and the House of Commons is the lower house. This does not, however, imply that the Senate is more powerful than the House of Commons, merely that its members and officers outrank the members and officers of the Commons in the order of precedence for the purposes of protocol. As a matter of practice and custom, the Commons is the dominant chamber. The approval of both chambers is necessary for legislation and, thus, the Senate can reject bills passed by the Commons. Between 1867 and 1987, the Senate rejected fewer than two bills per year, but this has increased in more recent years. Moreover, members of the Cabinet are responsible solely to the House of Commons. While the prime minister and the rest of Cabinet remain in office only while they retain the confidence of the Commons, senators are not beholden to such control. Although legislation can normally be introduced in either chamber, the majority of government bills originate in the House of Commons, with the Senate acting as the chamber of "sober second thought" (as it was called by Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada's first prime minister). Policies Foreign Policy * Border Control - High Security * Citizenship Tests - English & French Tests, Personality tests and Work Requirements * Military Spending - High * National Service - 6 months at the age of 18 Welfare * Child Benefit - Medium * Childcare Provision - Subsidies * Disability Benefit - Low * Food Stamps - Low * Rent Controls - Strict * State Housing - Homes for lower income housholds * State Pensions - From age of 65 * Unemployed Benefit - Low * Welfare Fraud Dept. - Spending Medium * Winter Fuel Subsidy - None * Ban Second Home Ownership - Yes * Compulsory Work For The Unemployed - Yes * Child Policy - Maximum of 5 Economy * Agriculture Subsidies - High * Ban Sunday Shopping - None * Clean Energy Subsidies - High * Consumer Rights - * Foreign Investor Tax Breaks - None * Labor Laws - * Maternity Leave - 1 year, half pay * Oil Drilling Subsidies - None * Organic Farming Subsidy - Medium * Pollution Controls - High * Recycling - High * Robotics Research Grants - Medium * Rural Development Grants - High * Small Business Grants - Low * Space Program - Very High * Tax Shelters - None * Technology Grants - For Colleges & Universities * Work Safety Law - Strict * Government Subsidies For Unions - Medium * Cap CEO Pay Multiplier - 12% * Trade Union Restrictions - Low * Mandatory Microgeneration - Yes Tax * Airline Tax - Low * Alcohol Tax - High * Capital Gains Tax - Medium * Car Tax - Medium * Carbon Tax - High * Corporation Tax - High * Enterprise Investment Scheme - Low * Flat Income Tax - None * Graduate Tax - None * Income Tax - 20% * Health Food Subsidies - High * Health Tax Credits - None * Inheritance Tax - Low * Internet Tax - None * Junk Food Tax - High * Luxury Goods Tax - Medium * Mansion Tax - High * Married Tax Allowance - Medium * Micro-Generation Grants - High * Mortgage Tax Relief - Medium * Petrol Tax - High * Plastic Bag Tax - High * Property Tax - Low * Recreational Drugs Tax - Low * Sales Tax - Medium * School Tax Credits - None * Tobacco Tax - High Public Services * Abortion Law - 2 Doctor's Approval * Adult Education Subsidies - High * Art Subsidies - Medium * Creationism vs. Evolution - Teaches both * Faith School Subsidies - Nnone * Food Standards Agency - Strict * Free Eye Tests - Universal * Free School Meals - Universal * Healthcare Vouchers - None * Organ Donation - Assumed (opt out) * Public Libraries - Universal * School Prayers - Non-compulsory * School Vouchers - None * Science Funding - High * State Health Service - Very High tech hospitals * State Schools - Very High provided uniforms and resources * Stem Cell Research - Very High * Technology Colleges - Universal * University Grants - Universal * Youth Club Subsidies - Medium * Ban Private Education - Yes * Ban Private Healthcare - Yes * Compulsory Language Lessons - English & French until 18yrs * Ban Foreign Church Service - None * National Anthem At Start Of News - Yes * National Anthems In Schools - Yes * Force Political Military Religious Oath - None * Public Religious Broadcasts - None Law and Order * Alcohol Law - 18 and over * Armed Police - Only in large cities * CCTV Cameras - On every street * Community Policing - High * Curfews - None * Death Penalty - Rape and Murder * Detention Without Trial - None * Gambling - Casinos illegal * Gated Communities - None * Handgun Laws - License, Vetting and 21 age limit * ID Cards - Compulsory, Universal * Intelligence Services - High * Internet Censorship - None * Jury Trial - Upon request * Legal Aid - None * Legalize Prostitution - None * Narcotics - Cannabis Legal * Police Drones - In cities * Police Force - High * Prisoner Tagging - Universal * Prisons - High * Private Prisons - Illegal * Racial Profiling - Low * Speed Cameras - In high-risk areas * Tasers - Most officers * Wire Tapping - In high-risk areas * Secret Courts - None * General Media Censorship - Low * Torture Usage By Secret Services - Classified * Flags On Every Street Corner - Yes * Compulsory Church Attendance - No * Ban Divorce - No * Ban Homosexuality - No Transport * Free Bus Passes - Universal * Hybrid Cars Initiative - High * National Monorail System - High * Rail Subsidies - Medium * Road Building - Major Expansion * Satellite Road Pricing - Low * Subsidised School Buses - Medium * Telecommuting Initiative - Medium * Toll Roads - None * New Car Subsidies - High * Ban Low MPG Cars - Yes * Limit or ban Cars In Cities - Higher tax in cities * Close Airports Completely - No